Informative essay topic

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business

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on business. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality business paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in business, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your business paper at affordable prices! CHANGE AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILIY UNIT 1.4

- Social responsibility is about meeting obligations tot he community that are beyond those required by law or economics. It is about doing the right thing.

- Ecological sustainability is an area where managers can do more then required by law. This is concerned with not compromising the needs of future generations by using up all the finite resources such as coal

- Quality of working life is another area where managers can do more. This is concerned with the well-being of people in the workforce Write my paper on business for me - Technology has a dramatic effect on the way people do their jobs and has both positive and negative effects on society as a whole

- Globalisationings responsibilities to a wider community and it is concerned with not abusing the rights of other people in other countries

- Managers have a responsibility to ensure that we utilise the talents of a diverse community. This will benefit both the individual businesses and the community as a whole

- E-commerce involves responsibilities relating to trust in the community

UNDERSTANDING BUSINESS ORGANISATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO MANAGEMENT THEORIES Unit1.

- The management theorists of the past provide valuable insights into current business practices.

- The classical-scientific theorists main contribution was the use of the scientific method to determine the one best way of doing things. They

Were particularly effective in increasing productivity in manufacturing businesses

Gave insights into the managerial functions of planning, organising and controlling

Put an emphasis on the division of labour and organised people into departments

Suggested a hieratical pyramid structure to organise the business with the small spans of control and a rigid chain of command

Supported a leadership style that was highly autocratic

- The behaviourists focused on human and organisational behaviour, relationships, motivation and cooperation (the scientific management theorists treated people as machines). They

Looked at organisations in terms of group behaviour and team effort rather than individual performance

Saw that the role of management was to harmonise and coordinate the efforts of all the people in the organisation

Had a human relations view of management

Had a leadership style that was more democratic and encouraged participation in decision-making by workers

Supported a flatter organisational structure based on teams

- The political theorists contributed to our understanding of power and

Authority as it affected management interactions with the various stakeholder groups. They recognised that

The structure of a business as a coalition of stakeholders

Groups of stakeholders have different views on the objectives of a business

Managers have to identify strongly held views of stakeholders and consider them when they develop strategies

- The classical, behavioural and political approaches to management have their strengths and weaknesses

The classical treated people as machines and although they significantly improved productivity at the time there are techniques, ignored by these theorists, that would further improve productivity

The behavioural approach added to our understanding of the importance of leadership, motivation, communication and resolving conflict to improve productivity

The political approach added to our understanding of power and authority in reconciling the different views of stakeholders

- The systems theorists recognised that a business should be seen as a system (a set of interrelated parts all operating together to achieve common goals). They

Recognise that systems involve inputs, transformation process, outputs and feedback

Saw the role of managers as one of coordination coordinating all parts of the organisation so it can achieve its goals

- The contingency theorists recognised that there are many variables that can impact on a business. They

Focused on the idea that managers must make decisions according to the circumstances of a particular situation

Suggested flexible structures and leadership styles

Please note that this sample paper on business is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on business, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on business will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Do androids dream of electric sheep. Philip K Dick.

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Do androids dream of electric sheep. Philip K Dick.. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Do androids dream of electric sheep. Philip K Dick. paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Do androids dream of electric sheep. Philip K Dick., therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Do androids dream of electric sheep. Philip K Dick. paper at affordable prices!

According to I.Halmgren, "science fictional worlds" "the distinctive feature of science fiction is in its generic license to create worlds that are other than the world we know." This statement is partly true for Phillip K Dicks novel Do androids dream of electric sheep?. However, the genre of science fiction is better described by the Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms, "Prose fiction that explores the probable outcomes of some improbable or impossible transformations of the basic human (or intelligent nonhuman) condition."(Baldick0) This essay will argue that Do Androids Dream of Electric sheep?, fits into that criteria perfectly because, although there are some new things that place the novel in the science fiction category, the world created by Dick is basically the world that we inhabit.

The nova, which are the new things that are different about the world of Do Androids Dream Electric Sheep, are that it is set in the future in a decaying post-nuclear environment. Therefore there is a lot more technology. People have colonized other planets and they have hovercrafts. The most important technological difference is that now androids are so completely self-aware and similar to humans that it has become difficult to decide who is who. The people in the novel are like us except that their lives and ethics seem different because of their dystopic environment and because of the new dilemma they face concerning the ethical treatment of androids. However, the differences are only surface variations of life, as we know it in our own world.

Even at face value, the world of Do Androids Dream of Electric sheep? immediately has elements that reflect our own world. For example, the main protagonist, Rick Deckard at first appears to be an ordinary man with an ordinary, stereotypical marriage and domestic life. He has regular thoughtless ideals that are very familiar to us. He wants to keep up with the neighbors. It is a capitalist, consumeristic world complete with commercials andand names and living in a way that one does not particularly like in order to hold down a job and pay for merchandise. In both worlds materialism is a barrier to true understanding. Even animals are commodified in this story and traded like used cars. Cheap essay writing services offer help on Do androids dream of electric sheep. Philip K Dick. On a more philosophical level, the world of Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep is like our world in that it has existentialist themes because it questions what it is to be human by examining different kinds of self awareness. The novel provides its own methods of classification for humanness and then purposefully disturbs those precepts so that the reader may query their own definitions about what it is to be human and accordingly, who they believe to be valuable and who is not.

Like our world, the novel defines what is human in a culturally subjective way. Apart from the obvious difference, that humans are organically born and androids created, the novel defines humans according to their ability to feel empathy for others. We know that they characterize humans by their ability to show empathy because the machine they use to prove authentic humanness does so by measuring empathic reactions to a series of emotional scenarios. According to the test, an example of a proper human response is the repulsion to the idea of eating meat, which is an interesting cultural question. It is making the statement that morality is purely subjective. It is very important for those in Dicks world to show that they have empathy to others and are therefore human by taking care of an animal. Also, in order to feel human they can fuse with Wilbur Mercer, and experience others, with is another example of empathy as proof of humanness. An extra explanation of what it is to be human according to the novel is a being that is self-deterministic and not preprogrammed, complete with false memories.

Both the characters of the novel and we treat certain humans differently. A classification that is neither human nor android is for those who are "special" (genetically damaged), like John Isodore. In our world, some people with genetic mental disabilities are discouraged from having children and many believe that they should be sterilized. Humans are often not comfortable with those who have an outstanding flaw. Nor do humans show much empathy for these people. John Isodores loneliness and social isolation is an all too common truth of our world.

In the novel, and in our real life, the boundaries that make someone human or not human are not rational or clear. At the same time as setting those characterizations of human beings, the novel intentionallyeaks those conventions so that ultimately, the similarities outweigh the differences by far. Human beings could be mistaken for androids. An example of an event in the novel where humans are like androids is when Deckard and his wife use the mood organ. If the very basis of their being human is that they have spontaneous emotion, the electric mood organ surely interferes with their humanity. Also, the mood enhancer as an object is not entirely alien to our world. Mood altering prescription drugs are used in our culture regularly as a method for people to escape their despair.

As animals, and people that are alien to us are often the same, androids can also be mistaken for humans in the novel. At many times throughout the novel androids show human characteristics. The fact that they want to rebel and seek a better life is self-determining behavior rather than programmed into them. The most lifelike androids up to date were called nexus, which means link (macquarie dictionary68) That meant that that model of android symbolized the "missing link" between androids and humans. Also the nexus 6 androids of the novel are a link because they occupy the space between the boundaries of what it is to be human or not. Also there are examples whereby androids do show empathy for others. One of these is when Rob Baty screamed out in pain when his partner was killed. The rebel androids did care about the welfare of the group.

The confusion about what is human and valuable and what is not is also very much a problem in our world. For example, Nazi Germany dehumanized Jews, as did European settlers to Australian aboriginals. Even right now, in our time and culture there are people in Australian detention centers who are treated inhumanely. The attitudes behind these atrocities are satirized in the novel when an advertisement for colonization refers to the days of slavery in Southern America as halcyon. (Dick.p16) Often our treatment of animals involves separating ourselves from their emotions.

We sometimes justify our actions by ignoring the self-awareness of others and objectifying them, as though they were androids. Thus we can set double standards. Those double standards are represented in the novel by humans caring for electric sheep in their leisure hours and desiring affection and sexual connection androids yet killing them for a living.

In reality no-one can truly understand what the minds of others is about, just as Deckard cannot decide what thoughts make someone human. It is a fact, that just as androids are deprived of human rights in the novel, so are many people and animals not given their rights in our world. In the novel, the real reason that it happens is because the people are afraid and that is the same in our world too. The people are afraid that the androids will become superior to them and also they have to be different to androids to maintain their identity.

Another way that Deckards world mirrors our own is by the similarities of the cult religions between each world, The cult religions of the novel are divided by the followers of Wilbur Mercer (humans) and the followers of Buster Friendly (androids). Wilbur Mercer is a Christ-like figure because he is self sacrificing for the good of humanity. He is also a little bit like the Greek legendary hero Sisyphus, who is condemned to repeatedly push a rock up a mountain as punishment for his craving for life. Just as the absurd plight of Sisyphus represented the struggles of life that we all share, so does Wilbur Mercer.

It is interesting that the name "Mercer" sounds like mercantile and mercenary, which is what characterizes humans weather real or in the novel. Creating the androids in the first place to be so self-aware and to have emotions is an extreme mercenary act. They are created so that the corporations can make money without any care given to what misery they are bound to encounter. The question is, why do the consumers want the androids to be so like humans? Perhaps is about having power over another? Buster Friendly is like a hero to the androids because he is an android and he exposes Wilbur Mercer, who is responsible for some of the persecution that they suffer.

In conclusion, I do not agree with Halmgren that Science fictional worlds are necessarily different from our own. Although there may be some differences, the things thating meaning to the genre of science fiction are those things that are the same. The science fictional world created by Phillip K Dick in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? is different from our world because it is set in the future after an ecological disaster but the humans have not changed a bit. They are still politically dysfunctional as they are socially motivated purely by materialism and greed. They are still unreasonable, confused creatures that have no understanding for others. Just as the mistreatment of those who are different from us, and the practical slavery of animals are parts of our world, the humans of the future created by Dick have still not learnt toeak down cultural boundaries and live at peace with others.

List of Works Consulted

Baldick, Chris. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York Oxford University Press, 001.

Dick, Philip K. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Greatitain Millennium, 1.

The Macquarie Dictionary. Australia The Macquarie Liary Pty Ltd, 001

List of Works Consulted

Baldick, Chris. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York Oxford University Press, 001.

Dick, Philip K. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Greatitain Millennium, 1.

The Macquarie Dictionary. Australia The Macquarie Liary Pty Ltd, 001

Please note that this sample paper on Do androids dream of electric sheep. Philip K Dick. is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Do androids dream of electric sheep. Philip K Dick., we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on Do androids dream of electric sheep. Philip K Dick. will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

theoretical approach in pyschology

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on theoretical approach in pyschology. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality theoretical approach in pyschology paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in theoretical approach in pyschology, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your theoretical approach in pyschology paper at affordable prices! General Description of Theoretical perspectives or Approaches in Psychology.

There are 5 major approaches in psychology, which predominate in order to examine the human behaviors.

1. Biological perspective

This is an approach that emphasizes on bodily events & changes, which are associated with actions, feeling & thoughts. For e.g. They study the behaviors of a person in illness and health and how the mind and body reacts to that particular event, they try to study the role of genes in development of traits and abilities.. Learning perspective

This is concerned with how the environment and an experience have affected the human mind and hence its action or even an animals action. This approaches usually used in many practical ways like trying to help an individual get rid of his unwanted habits and get good desired ones. This is a very important approach as it has given Psychology most reliable findings

. The Cognitive approach

It stresses more on what goes on in peoples heads. By this approach we can usually correlate the persons actions, feeling and choices with their thoughts and explanations. In this method they have developedilliant ways to infer mental processes from the observable behavior and hence is one of the strongest forces in psychology.

4. Sociocultural perspective

This usually takes into consideration the social and cultural forces outside the individual, which shape the behaviors. The influence of spouse, lovers, bosses, parents and strangers on ones life is studied. The cultural rules and values also affect the peoples development.

5. Psychodynamic perspective

It deals with unconscious dynamics within the individual, such as inner forces, conflicts or instinctual energy. This method differs in its language, methods and standards of which are acceptable. They try to dig a persons behavior to get to its unconscious roots.

This method helps the psychologist to separate well-supported conclusions from baseless beliefs and help the people to think critically.

Please note that this sample paper on theoretical approach in pyschology is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on theoretical approach in pyschology, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on theoretical approach in pyschology will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Hip Unchecked

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Hip Unchecked. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Hip Unchecked paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Hip Unchecked, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Hip Unchecked paper at affordable prices! A whole new face of a growing American culture is presented in an article by Steve Rushin titled "Hip Unchecked," which appeared in the June 1 issue of Sports Illustrated. In this article, Rushin vividly describes the "American character" and ways we use language to create our identities. Rushin bemoans the continuous sarcasm and attitude to which he is witness, whether at the ballpark or in front of the T.V. He argues that our cultural values are evaporating and claims that we are becoming a "Wise Guy Nation." In the article entitled "Hip Unchecked", Rushin gives us many examples to prove his point.

He begins his article with an incident at an amusement park in Middle America. At the park, Rushin observed many young kids wearing T-shirts that were imprinted with cutting remarks towards others which is not typical for their age group. Like the five year old kid wearing a T-shirt that commanded "SPEAK TO MY AGENT." Rushin goes back to his hotel where he once again faces the world of sarcasm and cynicism and this time not on trash talking T-shirts but on Television. TV shows that deliver mock news such as The Daily Show, The Late Late Show and The Tonight Show are few of the many TV shows that focuses on sarcasm as their theme. "Television nowoadcast more news parodies than actual news programs", says Rushin. People arent aware of what is really going on in the real world. There are newspapers that make literary ridicule using mockery and derision to demonstrate the negative aspect of human folly.

"Why is it wrong to give sympathy to someone who might need it?" Rushin questions the slogan "I WILL GIVE TREATMENT, NOT SYMPATHY". People think that it is uncool to become serious, honest and caring.

In Sports and on TV, sarcasm and cynicism are drowning out sincerity and compassion. The World is full of smart-alecks and civility is going down. People are separating themselves from their culture and busy creating a new culture which is full of sarcasm and cynicism. "We have became the Wise Guy Nation", Rushin declaims, "...America, where every citizen is a snarky, cynical, hipper-than-thou, irony-dripping icon of comedy and cool."

Please note that this sample paper on Hip Unchecked is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Hip Unchecked, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on Hip Unchecked will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

romeo and juliet the play in comparrison to th film

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on romeo and juliet the play in comparrison to th film. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality romeo and juliet the play in comparrison to th film paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in romeo and juliet the play in comparrison to th film, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your romeo and juliet the play in comparrison to th film paper at affordable prices! I read Shakespeares play Romeo and Juliet in class and then watched Baz Luhrmanns film version in the cinema.

There was no comparison!

When I first read the text I found it quite difficult and turgid. I thought Shakespeares opening was good with the jokes and the fighting and I really liked Mercutios spell-binding Queen Mab speech. I also felt truly sorry for Juliet who was alone and isolated for much of the play.

However nothing prepared me for the movie! I was enthralled.

Luhrmanns opening was just so clever, so modern. The Prologue became a TV announcer; the music used was Rap music The boys,the boys; the riot in the text became a shoot-out (to Spaghetti-Western music); and the high octane energy. All these blew my mind!

The rest of the film raced along as Luhrmann made Shakespeare thoroughly modern.

Mercutio became a transvestite dope-head, the music at the masque was beautiful (using Afro-American singers) and Paris was an eligible bachelor on Time magazine (and dressed as an all-American icon in an astronauts outfit, at the masque).

Guns, cars and helicoptor-shots made Shakespeares text accessible, whilst sensitive acting by Dane and DiCaprio (as Juliet and Romeo, respectively) and equally delicate use of water (fish-tank and swimming pool) by Luhrmann, made the romance truly touching.

The films denouement was even better than Shakespeares original because Romeo and Juliets eyes meet momentarily, right at the end; their mutual sighting being their final image of each other.

However, I do admit that knowing the text beforehand made the film more fun. I could appreciate lots of the jokes and wanted to see it again and again to figure out how Luhrmann created his ideas (many were obviously suggested by the text itself!).

I suppose he had a great text from which to work!

Please note that this sample paper on romeo and juliet the play in comparrison to th film is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on romeo and juliet the play in comparrison to th film, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on romeo and juliet the play in comparrison to th film will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

gap junctions

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on gap junctions. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality gap junctions paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in gap junctions, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your gap junctions paper at affordable prices! 1.0 INTRODUCTION

During the course of evolution of single cells to multicellular organisms, new genes and functions were developed to assure coordinated regulation of cellular processes within these more complex entities. In multi-cellular organisms a delicate balance of regulatory and integrative mechanisms has to be achieved in order to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in the face of variations in the external conditions. This state of equiliium, termed homeostasis, is controlled by three major communication processes 1) extracellular communication, ) intracellular communi-cation, and ) intercellular communication. The integrated control of these three communication routes permits an organism to proliferate, to differentiate, to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) and to adapt/respond to stimuli (Trosko and Ruch, 18).

It has been suggested that the gain in ability of more complex organisms to regulate cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis is directly related to the appearance of intercellular communication. This notion is supported by several studies that have shown that this type of communication is severely impaired in cancers, which often exhibit behavior characteristic of a single-cellular organism. Processess typical to these organisms such as uncontrolled cell proliferation, inability to terminally differentiate and an altered apoptosis rate are often found in cancerous cells (Trosko and Ruch, 18). Besides growth control, intercellular communication plays an essential role in a variety of physiological processes including electrical coupling, tissue response to hormones, and regulation of emyonic development.

The diversity and the vital character of these functions for the survival of an organism clearly demonstrate the importance of understanding the mechanisms involved in the control of intercellular signaling. Intercellular communication is mediated through the gap junction communication channel, which has become one of the focal points of the research in the field with a particular emphasis on the regulatory aspects of gap-junctional intercellular communication (GJIC). The insight gained from these studies can lead to the development of new therapeutic approaches to a variety of patho-physiological states caused by abnormal intercellular communication. Write my paper on gap junctions for me

1.1 The Gap Junction Communication Channel

1.1.1 Gap Junctions

Gap junctions are sites between adjoining cells that allow for direct intercellular passage of molecules smaller than 1 kDa. These channels are relatively non-specific and the observed selectivity is based mainly on molecular size, allowing the passive diffusion of small molecules and ions such as water, cAMP, sugars, nucleotides, amino acids, fatty acids, small peptides and drugs, but blocking the transfer of proteins, complex lipids, polysaccharides, nucleic acids and other large molecules. Recent studies have challenged the apparent non-specificity of GJs hinting at more complex regulatory mechanisms behind the control of GJ permeability to certain compounds. Gap junctions are found in almost all multicellular organisms of the animal kingdom, both inverteates and verteates, and in almost all tissues with the exception of a few terminally differentiated cells such as erythrocytes, lymphocytes, skeletal muscle and adipocytes (Kumar and Gilula, 16).

An integral memane protein called a connexin is the main structural unit of the gap junction channel (Fig. 1, A). Connexins comprise a multi-gene family with at least twenty mammalian connexin genes discovered to date. The expression of a particular connexin type is strictly correlated with the cell type and tissue in which it is found. Gap junctions have a relatively simple molecular organization they display a hierarchy of assembly with six connexin subunits forming an integral complex called a connexon (Fig. 1, B). The connexons from the plasma memane of the neighboring cells align and interact to form the gap junction channel (Fig. 1C). In turn, gap junctions cluster in specific regions resulting in the formation of gap junction plaques (Fig. 1D).

Figure 1. The Structure of a Gap Junction. Schematic model of gap junction showing the arrangement of six connexin subunits to form a connexon, which contains the central channel connecting the cytoplasm of the two adjoining cells.

All connexins appear to have the same topology in the plasma memane with the polypeptide spanning the lipid bilayer four times, with both N- and C- termini located in the cytoplasm. One of the four transmemane domains, M, is amphipatic in nature and contributes to the lining of the channel. The two extracellular loops (E1 and E) (Fig. 1A) negotiate the docking of the two opposing connexons by facilitating the initial interactions between them. Each loop contains a characteristic arrangement of three cysteine residues that are thought to enhance the rigidity of these extracellular segments necessary for the docking of the two connexons and formation of a gap junction. The intracellular loop between the transmemane domains M and M as well as the C-terminus exhibit the greatest variability among different connexins and therefore are believed to be important for regulation of the protein (Kumar and Gilula, 16).

The X-ray crystallographic study of a recombinant gap junction memane channel lacking its C-terminus has revealed that the outer diameter of a GJ within a memane has a diameter of ~ 70 Å with the intercellular portion of the channel narrowing to ~ 50 Å (Unger et al., 1). The vertical cross-section of the interior of the channel disclosed that its diameter narrows down from ~ 40 Å to ~ 15 Å within its transmemane region in proceeding from the cytoplasmic to the extracellular portion of the bilayer. The channel widens again to ~ 5 Å within its extracellular section. Taking into account the contributions from the amino acids side chains, the narrowest diameter of the GJ is about 5 Å (Unger et al., 1).

1.1. Assembly and Degradation

Similarly to other integral memane proteins, "connexins are synthesized at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) memane in a typical process that involves a signal recognition particle, an integral signal anchor sequence, docking of the nascent-chain/ribosome complex to the translocon, and cotranslational integration of the connexin polypeptides into the ER memane" (Falk, 000). The final topological organization of the connexins is attained at the level of their ER memane integration (Falk et al., 14; Ahmad et al., 1; Diez et al., 1). The exact location at which connexin oligomerization takes place has not been clarified. Several studies have reported that connexins are assembled into oligomers within specialized region of the ER (George et al., 18, 1), either the intermediate compartment or ER-Golgi Intermediate Compartment (Schweizer et al., 10). However, other studies in NRK and CHO cell lines suggested that oligomerization of endogenously expressed Cx4 takes place after exit from the ER in late Golgi memanes (Musil and Goodenough, 1). These observations strongly suggest that the process is likely cell - type specific. Connexins are trafficked to the plasma memane by a consecutive series of vesicle fusion and budding from the ER through the Golgi apparatus by following the general secretory pathway (Musil and Goodenough, 11). The process of targeting connexons to the plasma memane is not currently understood but two general models have been proposed. The first involves the direct transport of the connexon to the GJ site whereas the other entails an indirect transport of the connexon by lateral movement within the plasma memane towards the gap junction site following its insertion at a distant location (Falk, 000). Once localized into the plasma memane, the connexons from the neighboring cells dock with each other via interactions of their connexin subunit extracellular loop domains forming a complete GJ channel. GJ channels in turn aggregate to form GJ plaques. The formation of plaques is assisted by calcium-dependent cell-adhesion molecules such as E-cadherins (Laird et al., 15; Laird 16). The cytoskeletal proteins ZO-1 and --spectrin have also been reported to play a role in this process (Toyofuku et al., 18).

The degradation and turnover of gap junctions are the least understood aspects of connexin processing within the cells. The turnover of connexins is relatively fast compared to other integral memane proteins with the reported half-lives in the range of 1 h for Cx4 and Cx45 in cultured cells or tissues (Beardslee et al., 18; Saffitz et al., 000) contrasted with 17 100 h for integral memane proteins measured in hepatocytes (Chu and Doyle, 185). The current evidence suggests that gap junctions are removed from the memane by internalization of entire channels within large fragments of GJ plaques (Severs et al., 18). The subsequent degradation process involves both lysosomal as well as proteasomal pathways (Laing and Beyer, 15; Laing et al., 17; Laird, 16; Rahman et al., 1; Musil et al., 000).

1.1. Gap Junctions and Their Role in Human Diseases

Gap junctions play an essential role in a number of diverse physiological processes. Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMTX) disease was the first pathology associated with a connexin. This progressive neuropathy results from myelin disruption and axonal degeneration of peripheral nerves and is caused by a mutation in Cx (Martin et al., 000). This connexin has a wide tissue distribution and is one of the major GJ proteins in liver as well as in oligodendrocytes. The fact that a mutation in Cx results in only a mild neuropathy suggests that connexins can compensate for the loss of other connexins in different tissues. Other diseases associated with mutations in various connexins include dominant and recessive hearing loss (Cx6, Cx1, Cx0), dominant epidermal disease (Cx1, Cx0., Cx0), dominant skin disease caused by abnormalities in keratinization, cataracts (Cx46, Cx50), and abnormal cardiac development (Cx4) (Table 1) (Bennett, 14; Kelsell et al., 001). Aberrant regulation of GJIC has been implicated in several types of neoplasia (Andrade-Rozental et al., 000). The majority of tumors express less connexin, have fewer gap junctions and exhibit a decrease in GJIC (Cesen-Cummings et al., 18; Yamasaki, 10).

Table 1. Human diseases associated with mutations in connexin genes (adapted from Kelsell et al., 001)

Connexin (gene) Human disorder

Cx (GJB1) X-linked Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease neuropathy often associated with hearing loss

Cx6 (GJB) Dominant and recessive non-syndromic moderate-profound sensorineural hearing lossDominant epidermal disease (palmoplantar keratoderma) and Vohwinkels syndrome

Cx1 (GJB) Recessive non-syndromic moderate-profound sensorineural hearing lossDominant non-syndromic high frequency hearing lossDominant skin disease (Erythrokeratoderma variabilis)Dominant sensorineural hearing loss and neuropathy

Cx0. (GJB4) Dominant skin disease (Erythrokeratoderma variabilis)

Cx0 (GJB6) Dominant hearing lossCloustons hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia skin disease (palmo-plantar keratoderma), hair loss, nail defects and often mental deficiency

Cx4 (GJA1) Association with visceroatrial heterotaxy

Cx46 (GJA)Cx50 (GJA8) Dominant zonular pulverant cataract

1. REGULATION OF GAP JUNCTIONS

1..1 General Aspects of GJ Regulation

GJ regulation is a complex process that can be achieved by aoad range of mechanisms that can generally be categorized into two major groups. The first category includes all the processes that affect the formation and levels of GJs starting with Cx gene expression through translation, oligomerization into connexons, transport to the memane, assembly into GJ and plaques, gating and finally degradation. The impaired GJIC caused by down-regulation of Cx in certain types of neoplasia is illustrative of this type of regulatory mechanisms. The second group includes all the modes of regulation that do not alter the cellular levels of GJ but affect its functionality, which is directly related to the fluctuation of the channel between the open and closed states. This GJ gating can be effected by a variety of exogenous and endogenous factors including extracellular soluble factors (mitogens, hormones, anesthetics and drugs) and biomolecules (oncogenes, growth factors, tumor promoters) (Berthoud et al., 000; Evans and Boitano, 001). These agents can exert their GJIC modulatory action either directly by introducing structural modifications to the channels, or indirectly for example by perturbing the lipidic environment in the vicinity of the channel and thus affecting its conformation (Hossain and Boynton, 000). The majority of GJIC modulators act by initiating complex signaling pathways leading to the activation of various kinases, phosphatases and adaptor proteins.

1.. Regulation of Gap Junctions by Phosphorylation of Connexins

Most connexins (including Cx1, Cx, Cx7, Cx40, Cx4, Cx45, Cx46, Cx50, and Cx56) contain protein kinase "consensus phosphorylation sequences" and have been demonstrated to be phosphoproteins (Lampe and Lau, 000). The majority of the phosphorylation events occur on the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail, which has been shown to be important for regulation (Fig. ). It is interesting to note that the Cx4 truncated mutant that lacks a C-terminal retains its ability to form functional channels in Xenopus oocytes or SKHep1 cells, albeit with altered permeability and electrophysiological properties compared with those of a wild type Cx4 channel (Fishman et al., 11; Dunham et al., 1). A Cx mutant that is truncated at its C-terminal has been linked to CMTX disease (Rabadan-Diehl et al., 14). The above examples emphasize the important regulatory role of the C-terminal domain in channel gating and possibly in the rates of connexin transport, assembly and turnover.

A variety of protein kinase modulators have been applied to investigate the effects of phosphorylation on gap junction function, revealing that phosphorylation events are connexin and cell-type specific. However, some general trends have been observed across different connexins. For example, compounds that increase levels of intracellular cAMP tend to enhance GJIC. This observation has been attributed to increased rates of connexin transcription, increased levels of connexin RNA or protein (Darrow et al., 16), changes in connexin phosphorylation status (Traub et al., 187), as well as changes in Cx4 transport (Atkinson et al., 15) and GJ conductance (Spray et al., 11; Jongsma et al., 000). On the other hand, agents that activate PKC such as phorbol esters generally diminish GJIC. Staurosporine, a protein kinase inhibitor, has been shown to increase GJIC in SKHep cells expressing Cx4, whereas okadaic

Figure . A schematic representation of the primary structure of rat Cx4. Phosphorylation sites in Cx4 targeted by V-Src, MAP kinase and PKC are indicated.

(Borrowed from Lampe et al., 000)

acid, a phosphatase inhibitor, has had the opposite effect on GJIC (Moreno et al., 14). These studies taken together demonstrate that phosphorylation is an important regulatory mechanism for GJ function. However, the signaling pathways responsible for these observations have not yet been fully deciphered.

1.. Phosphorylation of Cx4

Cx4 is the most common connexin expressed across aoad range of cell lines and tissues. The phosphorylation of Cx4 can have both an inhibitory and stimulatory effect on GJIC. The primary sites of Cx4 phosphorylation are multiple serine residues (1 residues) on its C-terminal domain (Fig. ). The extent of phosphorylation on threonine residues is significantly smaller (Kanemitsu et al., 17). Cx4 phosphorylation on tyrosine has been reported only in cells expressing oncoproteins such as v-Src or v-Fps (Kurata and Lau, 14). The protein kinases PKC, MAP kinase and pp60src were shown to phosphorylate Cx4 (Lau et al., 000). Many other protein kinases could also be involved in Cx4 phosphorylation.

Cx4 extracted from untreated mammalian cells and separated by SDS-PAGE can generally be resolved into several bands corresponding to its different isoforms. Typically observed are a nonphosphorylated (NP ~ 4 kD) form that migrates faster on the gel and two slower bands that correspond to the most common phosphoisoforms (P1 and P, ~44 kD and ~46 kDa respectively), which have been shown to be phospho-rylated mainly on serine residues (Musil and Goodenough, 11). However, neither the protein kinase(s) isoforms responsible for these phosphorylations nor their target sites in untreated cells have been identified.

1...1 Phosphorylation of Cx4 During Its Life Cycle

Phosphorylation events have been associated with the localization of Cx4 to the plasma memane as well as with aggregation of connexons into GJ plaques, pointing to the possible role of this post-translational modification in the regulation of Cx4 transport and/or the assembly or disassembly of GJs (Musil and Goodenough, 11). Phosphorylation has been demonstrated to occur as soon as 15 min after Cx4 synthesis in cultured fioblast cells, clearly showing that it can occur before the proteins arrival at the memane (Crow et al., 10). The fact that a nonphosphorylated form of Cx4 can be detected at the memane suggests that either these early phosphorylations are transient in nature or that dephosphorylation occurs at the memane (Musil and Goodenough, 11). Although Cx4 does not have to be phosphorylated in order to be localized to the memane, Cx4 present in GJ plaques has been found to be phosphorylated almost exclusively to its P form and selectively resistant to solubilization by Triton X-100 (Musil and Goodenough, 11). However, it is not known if these phosphorylation(s) play a role in the formation and stabilization of GJs in plaques.

1... Phosphorylation of Cx4 by PKC and PKA

The stimulation of PKC by the short exposure to phorbol ester TPA results in a marked decrease in GJIC, as indicated by a reduction in dye transfer in different cell types (Rivedal and Opsahl, 001). PKC can phosphorylate Cx4 on S68 and S7 in vitro (Saez et al., 17; Lampe et al., 000). It has also been shown that S68 is a major site of phosphorylation in vivo (Lampe et al., 000). The cells expressing the site-directed mutant S68A were resistant to dye transfer inhibition by TPA. Examination of the channel conductance in cells treated with TPA has further supported the notion that the PKC-mediated phosphorylation of S68 in Cx4 is involved in the mechanism of GJIC inhibition by TPA since the S68A mutant (unlike wild-type Cx4) showed no decrease in the full open conductance state of GJ channels (Lampe et al., 000). PKA does not appear to phosphorylate Cx4 in vitro. However, compounds that stimulate an increase in cAMP levels generally enhance Cx4 intracellular levels. Additionally, studies in which PKA or PKC were introduced into L cells transfected with either wild type or S64P mutant Cx4 cDNA have implied that both kinases may play a complex role in GJIC regulation (itz-Cunningham et al., 15).

1... Phosphorylation of Cx4 by Tyrosine Protein Kinases

Both EGF and PDGF receptor tyrosine kinase activation through ligand binding negatively affected GJIC causing a rapid inhibition of dye transfer and a significant increase in the phosphorylation of Cx4 on serine residues (Kanemitsu and Lau, 1; Hossain et al., 18). The effect of EGF receptor on Cx4 GJIC was shown to rely on activation of MAP kinase but not to be related to PKC activity (Kanemitsu and Lau, 1). MAP kinase seems to phosphorylate Cx4 directly in EGF-treated cells by targeting Ser55, Ser7, and Ser8 residues (Warn-Cramer et al., 16; 18). A triple mutant of these three residues formed functional GJs but was not affected by MAP kinase in response to EGF-stimulation (Warn-Cramer et al., 18). Evidence supporting the role of MAP kinase in the regulation of GJIC also comes from experiments in which purified MAP kinase was demonstrated to phosphorylate Cx4 channels reconstituted into liposomes and to induce a decrease in their conductance (Kim et al., 1).

The inhibition of GJIC by activation of the PDGF receptor involves more complex mechanisms and is less understood. The process appears to depend on both PKC and MAPK activity and may be regulated by other signaling pathways in addition to Cx4 phosphorylation (Hossain et al., 18; 1a; 1b). The potential sites of serine phosphorylation following stimulation of the PDGF receptor, the effective downstream serine protein kinase(s), and potential other regulatory protein(s) have not been determined.

Activation of non-receptor cytoplasmic kinases, such as pp60src, potentiates phosphorylation of Cx4 on tyrosine residues, resulting in a marked inhibitory effect on GJIC. The v-Src tyrosine kinase seems to phosphorylate Cx4 directly in vitro and in vivo (Loo et al., 15). Cx4 has been shown to interact directly with v-Src tyrosine kinase through the interactions between phosphotyrosine sites and proline-rich regions on Cx4 and the SH and SH domains on v-Src respectively (Kanemitsu et al., 17). Phosphorylation of Y65 and possibly Y47 may play a role in the observed impairment of GJIC. The current body of evidence strongly supports the importance of the Y65 residue in this process as a Y65F mutant was not able to associate with the activated pp60src kinase in Xenopus oocytes although it formed functional channels.

Another model of GJIC disruption by v-Src kinase has been recently proposed based on findings that are in direct conflict with the above mentioned results. In these studies, the activation of v-Src affected a Y65F mutant by decreasing junctional conductance in Xenopus oocytes (Zhou et al., 1). Additionally, the ability of v-Src to inhibit GJIC was eliminated by a treatment with the MEK inhibitor, PD805, implying that phosphorylation on a serine rather than a tyrosine residue can be of significance (Zhou et al., 1). MAP kinase may be a potential enzyme through which v-Src exerts its action although further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms involved (Zhou et al., 1).

1...4 Dephosphorylation of Connexins by Protein Phosphatases

The role of protein phosphatases in the regulation of gap junctions is only beginning to emerge. The recent studies of selective inhibition of different classes of protein phosphatases in stimulated cells have highlighted the importance of these enzymes in the regulatory nature of the connexin phosphorylation-dephosphorylation cycle. Okadaic acid, an inhibitor of protein phosphatases PP1 and PPA, has been reported to stimulate the phosphorylation of Cx4 in cultured rat myocytes, a process affecting GJ communication as indicated by an accompanying decrease in the unitary channel conductance (Moreno et al., 14). In another study the treatment of EGF-stimulated rat liver epithelial cells with okadaic acid slowed down the recommencement of GJIC and the dephosphorylation of Cx4 (Lau et al., 1). Similarly, the usually observed dephosphorylation of Cx4 upon treatment with 18-glycyrrhetinic acid was prevented in the presence of okadaic acid (Guan et al., 17).

The inhibitors of PPB protein phosphatases exhibited properties similar to those of PP1 and PPA classes in that they retarded the restoration of GJIC and prevented the dephosphorylation of Cx4 in cells treated with TPA (Cruciani et al., 1). However, only PPB class inhibitors were able to induce the above effect in cells that were subjected to hypoxia (Li et al., 000). Although the above evidence strongly supports the function of protein phosphatases in GJIC control, little is known about the exact identity of the enzymes involved. In addition, most of the studies to date have examined the impact of phosphatase inhibition in stimulated cells. The insight into the role of phosphatases in GJIC regulation in untreated cells is lacking mostly due to the fact that phosphatase inhibitors such as okadaic acid failed to alter GJIC in several unstimulated cell lines (Lau et al., 1; Guan et al., 17; Saez et al., 1). This implies a more subtle level of control that protein phosphatases maintain on GJIC regulation in unstimulated cells. It is also reasonable to expect that the mechanisms of phosphatase function in the regulatory process are cell type specific.

In summary, the following aspects of the role of the Cx phosphorylation/ dephosphorylation in the regulation of GJIC have been established (Lampe and Lau, 000)

1. After the arrival of a connexon at the plasma memane, Cx phosphorylation is not always essential for the formation of a functional GJ channel,

. phosphorylation of specifc residues (Ser or Tyr) reduces GJIC, implicating the "gating" of GJ channels,

. phosphorylation may facilitate protein-protein interactions important for Cx regulation,

4. phosphorylation is important for Cx processing, i.e. trafficking, assembly and/or turnover,

5. dephosphorylation by protein phosphatases may be important for modulating the effects induced by phosphorylation.

Please note that this sample paper on gap junctions is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on gap junctions, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on gap junctions will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Unchecked Power in Shakespeares Macbeth and King Lear

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Unchecked Power in Shakespeares Macbeth and King Lear. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Unchecked Power in Shakespeares Macbeth and King Lear paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Unchecked Power in Shakespeares Macbeth and King Lear, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Unchecked Power in Shakespeares Macbeth and King Lear paper at affordable prices! Unchecked Power in Shakespeares Macbeth and King Lear

In many of the plays by William Shakespeare, the central character goes through internal and external changes that ultimately shake their foundations to the core. Numerous theories have been put forth to explain the sequence of tragedies Shakespeare wrote during this period by linking it to some experience of melancholy, anger, despair, and the antagonists ultimate fall from grace in their lust for power. But such theories overlook the fact that it is in this very same period and in the same tragic works that portray the heights to which human nature can rise and fall in its purest and noblest, if not happiest terms. Surely the creation of so much light alongside the darkness and the perfection of the artistic medium through which Shakespeare gives them expression argues against the idea that the greedy side of human nature is his chief concern. His efforts to portray human life in its rarest form and not only the dark depths, but also the treasure rooms of our being. He tries to pierce beneath the superficial motives and forces of surface behavior, social, and cultural expressions and to the deeper levels of individual character and human nature. Shakespeare then places these aspects of human existence in their true relation to the wider field of universal life. In relation to the tragic hero, there are many similarities between the tragic heroes in Macbeth and King Lear. However, the differences between the two outline the re-occurring themes in both plays. In Shakespeares plays the central characters own weaknesses and lust for power lead to corruption. The unchecked power in Shakespeares Macbeth and King Lear ultimately leads to corruption, tragedy, and the heros fall from grace.

In Macbeth, Macbeths power goes unchecked within himself, his wife, and within the kingdom. The title character is a tragic hero, a person of high rank who isought to eventual ruin by his desire for power. At the beginning of the play, Shakespeare defines Macbeth as a valiant hero very clearly. His courage is unquestionable in defense of Scotland in the opening scene. When King Duncan names Malcolm Prince of Cumberland, Macbeth decides to murder Duncan. Macbeth is loyal to the King and he imagines murder but rejects the idea. Macbeth is aware that his thoughts are corrupt and he knows that justice will somehow punish him. Then in Act I Scene , Macbeth considers killing King Duncan to make the witches prophesy come true. He says, "Why, if fate will have me king, why chance may crown me." Yet increasingly his ambition defeated his good nature. Macbeths limited power as Thane of Cawdor ignites his desire for complete and absolute power at any cost. The most apparent flaw, and perhaps the most tragic in Macbeths character, is his lack of patience and hunger for total power.

Macbeth tries to upset the natural order established by the gods. Most important to the theory that Macbeth is responsible for his own actions would be a point that the infamous witches and Macbeth agree upon. Such an element exists in the form of Macbeths ambition. In the soliloquy Macbeth gives before he murders Duncan, he states, ...I have no spur/To prick the sides of intent, but only/Vaulting ambition,"(Act I, Scene .). These are not the words of a man who is merely being led down a self destructive path of doom, with no will of his own, but words of a man who realizes not only the graveness of his actions. Later the head witch, Hecate, says," Hath been but for a wayward son,/Spiteful and wrathful, who, as others do,/Loves for his own ends, not for you. (Act III, Scene 5), which again highlights Macbeths inward nature. The most significant part of the play is the paradox between Macbeths ambitions and desire for power as he simply succumbs to natural urges, which take him to a fate of his own making. Everyone has character flaws that he must live with and Macbeth simply allowed those flaws to destroy him. These flaws ultimately haunt Macbeth and cause him to let his overvaulting ambition rush fate, and hasten his doom. He acknowledges his guilt in several places in the story. After Macbeth becomes king, his sanity begins to unravel. In Act III, Scene 4 he sees images of his dead friend Banquo at the banquet. Lady Macbeths questioning of Macbeths manhood is crucial in fueling his ambition and desire to be king after he becomes Thane of Cawdor. Then his wife plants the initial seed of a "new" king in the thoughts of Macbeth. The reversal of control and power between he and his wife strikes Macbeths manhood. She is well aware of the discrepancy between their respective resolves and understands that she will have to manipulate her husband into acting on the witches prophecy. Her violent, blistering soliloquies in Act I, Scene 7, testifies to her strength of will, which completely eclipses that of her husband. Her soliloquy in Act I, scene V, begins the plays exploration of gender roles, particularly of the value and nature of masculinity. In the soliloquy, she spurns her feminine characteristics, crying out unsex me here and wishing that the milk in hereasts would be exchanged for gall so that she could murder Duncan herself. These remarks manifest Lady Macbeths belief that manhood is defined by murder. When, in Act I, scene vii, her husband is hesitant to murder Duncan, she goads him by questioning his manhood and by implicitly comparing his willingness to carry through on his intention of killing Duncan with his ability to carry out a sexual act (I.vii.8�41). Throughout the play, whenever Macbeth shows signs of faltering, Lady Macbeth implies that he is less than a man. By goading Macbeth, the "unseen power" she appears to have over Macbeth recalls the idea that Macbeth has no power or control in his own home or over his wife. He gains power by his murdering King Duncan, but in the end he loses it all even in death.

By killing Duncan, Macbeth unleashes a kind of primal chaos upon the realm of Scotland, in which the old order of benevolent king and loyal subjects is replaced by a darker relationship between a tyrant and his victims. However, even with all his power, Macbeth ceased to be a sympathetic hero once he made the decision to kill Duncan but by the end of the play he has become so morally repulsive that his death comes as a powerful relief. Ambition and bloodlust must be checked by virtue for order and form to be restored to the sound and fury of human existence. Macbeth makes no attempt to reverse the situation and is thereby responsible for his tragic fate. His tragic flaw is his lust for power, which leads him to a series of bloody and increasingly indefensible acts.

Shakepeares King Lear, in contrast to Macbeth, begins with absolute power held by King Lear. He wants to be treated as a king and enjoy the title, but he doesnt want to fulfill a kings obligations of governing for the good of his subjects. The aging King ofitain, decides to step down from the throne and divide his kingdom evenly among his three daughters. First, however, he puts his daughters through a test, asking each to tell him how much she loves him. Goneril, and Regan, Lears older daughters, give their father flattering answers. But Cordelia, Lears youngest and favorite daughter, remains silent, saying that she has no words to describe how much she loves her father. Lear flies into a rage and disowns her. By the end of the play King Lear has transformed from a conceited and self-righteous king with all power, to a humble and caring individual with no power at all. Unchecked power in King Lear leads to internal tragedy first within himself, the relationship with his daughters, and to corruption within the kingdom.

As the play opens one can almost immediately see that Lear

begins to make mistakes that will eventually result in his downfall. The very first words that he speaks in the play, ...Give me the map there… know that we have divided in three our kingdom, and tis our fast intent to shake all cares and business from our age, conferring them on younger strengths while we unburdened crawl to death…" As Lear bears the status of King he is, as one expects, a man of great power but sinfully he surrenders all of this power to his daughters as a reward for their demonstration of love towards him. This untimely abdication of his throne results in a chain reaction of events that send him through a journey from powerful to powerless.

Please note that this sample paper on Unchecked Power in Shakespeares Macbeth and King Lear is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Unchecked Power in Shakespeares Macbeth and King Lear, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on Unchecked Power in Shakespeares Macbeth and King Lear will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

How to study for a test

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on How to study for a test. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality How to study for a test paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in How to study for a test, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your How to study for a test paper at affordable prices! Process Essay

How to Study for a Test

When people hear the word test, they cringe, and get the feeling they dont remember anything. Well, I am here to teach you a few great techniques on how to improve your study skills, and also improve your memorization techniques. After reading this short how to, you will have a better understanding of your own capabilities. The key to doing well on a test is preparation.

Preparation, as I stated, is the key to getting ready to study for a test. The first thing you need to do, in order to become prepared, is write down when the test takes place; the time, date, and class. The next step is to find out what will be covered on the test, for example, what chapters, the pages, and any lectures or in class assignments. Next, you need to bookmark the areas in the book that you plan to study. And last in the preparation, set a date, and time to study. Make sure that you got enough sleep, because information is better retained when enough sleep was had. Study in a quiet, relaxing environment, such as a liary. Once this is done, you are ready for memorization techniques. Write my paper on How to study for a test for me Once you have prepared yourself, and found a quiet place, you are ready to improve on your memory techniques. First, open up your book, and scan the chapter. While you are scanning the chapter, write down words that catch you eye, and also get the basic idea of every paragraph into your thoughts. When you are finished scanning the chapter, write down questions, that you want answers to. After you have questions written down, you need to go back and really read the chapter again; while you are reading, keep the questions in your mind. When you are done reading, go back and see if you can answer the questions that you came up with.

Once you are finished answering your own questions, make your own outline of what you have read. The outline should consist of the main idea of each paragraph, and at least two supporting ideas. When the outline is complete, you are ready to read over your class notes. I suggest doing the same for the class notes that you have done with the book. Step one, scan; step two, question; step three, read; and step four, outline.

Understanding what you have read is very important in studying for a test. In order to understand, you might create pictures in your mind, to help with visualizing an idea. Some of you remember better if you recite and repeat the information. Recite the information while you are reading, and repeating the information after you have read. Others might have an easier time to organize their ideas that you have read, and associate those ideas with other ideas, for example, use a mnemonic device. Some of you might remember R.O.Y.G.B.I.V. for the colors in a spectrum for science, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

After you have a clear understanding of what you have read, you can also talk it out. Talking it out is similar to a study group. If you dont have anyone to study with, you can always read your notes, and outlines out loud. Tape recording the information is also useful to get a better idea, and to make sure that the information is pulled together. Pulling the information together is very important; it helps you remember.

Understanding the memory process will help you understand how to improve upon it. The first step in the memory process is, intention, your willingness to learn. The second step is, observation; you are alert to the information, and attentive. The third step is, organization; you make sense of the information. The fourth is, retention; you record and store the information. Recall is the last step; it is how well you remember the information.

Memory is defined as, the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. (Websters Dictionary) By improving your memory skills, you are also improving your study techniques. Tests are not meant to scare you, or make you cringe; they are designed to test your knowledge. Once you have an understanding of memory, and study techniques, you will have a better understanding of how to take a test. Studying is the key factor to asses how much you know for a test, and following this guide, will let you improve not only your study habits, but also your grades, or test anxiety. You are now ready to begin preparing for a test.

Please note that this sample paper on How to study for a test is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on How to study for a test, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on How to study for a test will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

The Teaching of English - as a Foreign Language

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on The Teaching of English - as a Foreign Language. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality The Teaching of English - as a Foreign Language paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in The Teaching of English - as a Foreign Language, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your The Teaching of English - as a Foreign Language paper at affordable prices! The Teaching of English

The history of foreign language teaching in Norway is not very long in a historical perspective. About a hundred years ago most Norwegians had little or no need to be able to communicate with people who spoke another language. The case today is very different. Kids who grow up in 00 hardly know what it is like to be a member of a small community without many opportunities of communication with other language groups. The kids of our time are born and raised to be citizens of the world geographically, racially, politically and language-wise. Not only is our country now inhabited by people from all over the world, but media, technology and travel habitsing the world to us - and us to the world. This makes the demand for good communication skills in at least one foreign language stronger and more appearent than some decades ago. Our Norwegian languge is such a small lingual community that the knowledge of a second language is decisive for us to be able to communicate and interact with other cultures. The cooperation across the borders of countries and cultures is constantly increasing, and the need to be proficient in a world language is strong. The probabilty of our pupils somewhere in the near future working in a field where good language skills are required, is so definite that we have to take this challenge seriously and make an effort to find out how language is best taught.

It is my experience and understanding that in our country, many English lessons may have looked somewhat like this

1. Listen to a text (on a tape, or now usually a CD) Cheap essay writing services offer help on The Teaching of English - as a Foreign Language . Answer questions about what happened in the text

. Write down words in your glossary

4. Practice reading and translating the text

5. Memorize words

6. Word test in class

7. Read and translate text loudly in class

8. Listen to new text

. Write down new words........ etc. etc.

In addition to this reproductional pattern, the teaching of grammar has been important. All pupils should know the patters of I am, you are........, I was, you were......, my-mine, your-yours, his .......etc. I do not say that this teaching pattern is necessarily wrong, but I do not think that all pupils are able to communicate well in English after going through this teaching for some years. I think that this teaching method helped us learn a lot of new words and to be aware of the grammatical errors we risked doing when producing texts ourselves.

Fortuneately, the teaching methods of 00 have developed and changed into the better, and many English teachers have seen the importance of allowing the pupils to be active in their own language learning. Reading the English part of L7 we repeatedly find "the ability to communicate in English". In this plan, the main goal is not to prevent the students from doing grammatical errors, but to enable them to use the English language in a practical way. When M 74s intention was to avoid all mistakes by strong guidance from the teacher, M 87 wanted "the pupils to develop a constructive attitude towards lingual errors. Instead of being afraid of mistakes, they have to understand that they can learn from their mistakes."

L 7 goes even further, and simply states that lingual errors often are a sign of learning progess. It also claims that the best way to learn a language, is to use it. From the beginning of language learning, which probably is even prior to first grade, the knowledge and experience of each child form the basis of their language learning. Through activities and interaction they can further develop their language skills.

The idea of communicative language learning has grown to be strong in the English teaching of our time. The pupils have to be given opportunitues to use the language as they interact with others. Using the language for real communication is meaningful. Answering questions to texts which are more or less of no interest, is not to be defined as meaningful, whereas sharing information, discussing points of view, talking about fields of interest is meaningful. As the students interact with fellow students, teachers and others, they will become aware of their own language patterns and learn from other role models. Using the language actively and receiving guidance through communicating with others,will help the learner overcome obstacles, make progress and become more independent. The teachers part in this way of teaching and learning a foreign language is to accomodate learning situations where the students are exposed to language both written and spoken, and subsequently use the language actively in communication. The teacher is no longer the dominant actor in the classroom, but a guide and counsellor.

As part of a meaningful approach to English learning, the use of authentic texts is an important feature of the subject as presented in L7. On all levels the children should be presented to texts in different genres. This versatile selection of texts is supposed to function as inspiration, a source of curiousity and models for the learners. Through authentic texts learners can aquire competence within most of the components of communicative ability. Authentic texts are meningful rolemodels in the learning of lingual and grammatical issues. Authentic texts can teach us something about how the language we use in one given situation is different from what we would use in another setting. The lingual features of different societies and cultures can be taught through texts, and obviously the ability to comprehend textual context in different genres. Authentic texts are an important feature of the teaching of English in Norway today, as well as in many other countries. Texts from English speaking countries not only act as rolemodels for the students owb writing, but also gives a good insight into other cultures . Through literature our Norwegian learnes can learn to comprehend the differences between our culture and the way people in other coutries live.

Having worked as a teacher for ten years now, I have to say that in my opinion many teachers use a long time to establish teaching methods according to new ideas and principles. Unfortuneately, I believe that there still are a lot of English teachers working "by the book" that is not according to the principles laid in L7, but by the English textbook and their preceding practice. In order to work according to L7 and the communicative approach we have to implement the ideas of the teacher as a creative organizer of learning situations, where the pupils are allowed to use their own knowledge in meaningful activities. As the pupils become more aware of their own language skills we enable them to develop and become good communicaters in a world language. A good English teaching practice includes a lot of learning for the students through guidance and councelling from the teacher, interaction, a selection of authentic and meaningful texts and a strong emphasis on communication. When our students experience the joy of discovering, exploring and using the language in a creative learning environment, we have reason to believe that the same students will find their own language skills to be assets in further education and real-life situations.

Please note that this sample paper on The Teaching of English - as a Foreign Language is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Teaching of English - as a Foreign Language, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on The Teaching of English - as a Foreign Language will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Annas Story

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Annas Story. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Annas Story paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Annas Story, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Annas Story paper at affordable prices! I have currently been reading a number of biographies and believe that there are many values to be gained. This idea came to me after reading the biography on Annas life, which is about how Anna died from an ecstasy tablet that she chose to take.

When reading a biograph a reader can pick up on the mistakes a character makes. These may not always be mistakes and may even be achievements that a character has made within a biography. Unfortunately in Annas story, Anna wood, made the mistake of taking drugs. This led her eventual death because of a "bad" e. Such facts will make the reader more aware of mistakes in his or her life, so that the reader can learn from the mistakes.

From reading a biography because a reader can pick up on mistakes that a character makes, and can understand and act upon those mistakes. Annas story focused on the mistake that teenagers are making when they take drugs. A biography can give detailed facts on the drug issues, and then these issues can be applied to todays teenage group. The author of Annas story hopes you learn from Annas mistake that cost her, her life, so that you dont make the same mistake.

Through the reading of texts you can gain knowledge but thought the reading of a biography you can gain knowledge about real characters so that u can apply their mistakes to you day-to-day life. This may and will help you have a better understanding and a higher experience in a number of day-to-day areas. This will help you know how to react and act in tight situations too. An example of this is in Annas story, when Anna became sick after having an ecstasy tablet. Now that I have read Annas story, if I get in a situation like Anna was in I will react by going straight to the hospital instead of what happened to Anna. Quote " if Anna wasought in a few hours yearly they might have even been able to save her". Biography texts are based upon real facts. They are not make up, and are reincarnations of true facts events and issues. This is factual information that is being presented to the reader and isnt merely made up. Because of this we can know that what we are learning is true and it actually happened. Annas story is true, and so the fact that she died from an ecstasy tablet. It is the truth about this issue that scared us and this truth that makes biographies a valuable resource for information.

Please note that this sample paper on Annas Story is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Annas Story, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on Annas Story will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

How the Black death of 1348, affected all aspects of society in England.

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on How the Black death of 1348, affected all aspects of society in England.. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality How the Black death of 1348, affected all aspects of society in England. paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in How the Black death of 1348, affected all aspects of society in England., therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your How the Black death of 1348, affected all aspects of society in England. paper at affordable prices! The Black Death arrived in England in August 148 and only petered out in 150, until there were further outeaks in 161. The plague wasought on by fleas, transmitted by rats and could be caught either by direct contact with a flea, or by airborne droplets of saliva coughed up by infected humans. Thisought the overall death toll to around half the population of England, which had stood at four or five million, and it was not selective of social status, religion or age. The Black Death caused an upheaval in the main religion of the day and the lives of the ruling class and peasants were altered indefinitely. The society of England prior to the Black Death was never revisited. "The Black Death speeded up the process of social stratification and drew a sharper distinction between country and parish gentry."

In the era before the Black Death religion played a very important part in peoples lives. Everyone (rich and poor alike) was expected to attend church regularly and had to pay a tax of one tenth of their goods to the Church. The priest was usually the most knowledgeable person in a village and people looked to him to explain things they did not understand. He was also the person to whom they confided in and confessed their sins and it was vital that he was called upon to give the last rites before someone died. Priests and other church leaders taught that the power of the nobility and the poverty of the peasants was part of Gods plan. As long as people accepted their station in life and did what was expected of them, they were assured of an eternal life in heaven. For such eternal happiness, peasants were willing to accept their short, wretched lives on earth.

With the onset of the Black Death many questions concerning the church arose. The church said that the Black Death was Gods will, although the reason for this horrific punishment was unknown. One of the worst aspects of this disease in Christians minds was that people died without last rites and without having a chance to confess their sins. As a result people were allowed to confess their sins to one another or even to a layman, and, if a man is not at hand then to a woman. This was something that would never have been tolerated before the plague.

Many priests died, or fled from their posts and finding quality replacements proved difficult. Priests played an important role in blessing the sick and so as a result thousands of new, inexperienced, unreliable, and sometimes corrupt priests were ordained as replacements, as is written, "priests cannot be found who are willing out of zeal [and] devotion". Filling church offices with the young or incompetent was not a practice that began with the plague, but it did intensify during the pestilenceChristianity remained a dominant force in their lives, but many people began to believe they did not need clergy to lead them to salvation but rather that it was possible for them to have an individual relationship with God. People began to undertake a variety of good works that required no involvement of priests, such as giving money to hospitals or poor monasteries, and even going on pilgrimages. It also became common for people to pick out a special saint known as a plague saint, to pray to for protection. The sacramental wafer was taken as often as possible, instead of the old prescribed minimum communion of once a year.

Just as some people turned to religion, others turned away from it, denouncing God for doing such a terrible thing as sending the plague into the world. Many people became worshipers of Lucifer, calling themselves Lucifereans, and praying to him for help against God.

Although the church suffered an enormous loss of prestige during the Black Death, the majority of people remained deeply tied to Christianity and were more thirsty than ever for spiritual values in an uncertain and frightening world. The impact that the Black Death had on the church essentially helped pave the way for the Protestant Reformation.

Prior to the Black Death the dominance of the nobility over the peasants was an acceptable practice. Most of the peasants were owned and dictated to by powerful landlords. They could not question their masters authority and were expected to obey his every command. This they believed was the rightful thing to do in order to gain salvation into the kingdom of God.

Although there was this clear distinction of classes the Black Death did not adhere to this principle and the lives of both classes were deeply affected. The Black Death took the lives of many, no matter of ones status, sex or age.

The peasants who survived the Black Death believed that there was something special about them, almost as if God had protected them. Therefore, they took the opportunity offered by the disease to improve their lifestyle.

Many lords were short of desperately needed labour for the land they owned, as many of their labourers had died from the Black Death. Lords actively encouraged peasants to leave the village where they had lived to come to work for them. When peasants did this, the Lord refused to return them to their original villages. For the first time the peasants began to realise that they were a necessary commodity in order to sustain the lives of the rich. They took advantage of this and it is written, "the labourer is angry unless he gets higher wages, and he curses the day that he was ever born a workman" which resulted in greater prosperity. This meant that they also enjoyed a higher standard of living and security of employment.

To curb peasants roaming around the countryside looking for better pay, the government introduced the Statute of Labourers in 151, which basically stated that they were to be paid no more than what they had been paid in 146, and they could not leave the village they belonged to. This angered many peasants, and the final straw was when an unfair poll tax was imposed on peasants which meant that every individual peasant was required to pay the same amount as the wealthy landlord paid. They displayed their anger by rioting in the city of London. They looted, killed, destroyed and burned property. William Dene wrote, "All the labourers, skilled or unskilled, were so carried away by the spirit of revolt." Finally the king agreed to meet with them and he granted them what they wanted. Therefore, it can be argued that the Black Death led to the peasants revolt. The rebels had made some permanent gains, which altered their lives for the better the poll tax was eliminated, and no more laws were passed to cap wages or limit the peasants movements. This meant that the peasants enjoyed a greater sense of freedom after the Black Death.

These new rules that were established after the Black Death made the lives of the peasants fairer, and caused them to have a more worthwhile role in society. However, the impact of the Black Death on the lives of the ruling class was not as beneficial, and their world was turned upside down. Although they still had plenty of land, they suddenly had a difficult time finding enough peasants to work on it. This shifted their attitude, and rather than being interested in getting promises of loyalty or obedience, they were more interested in getting money for their land by either renting or selling it. In England the nobility faced a major reduction in income, as they were said to have fallen below twenty percent between 147 and 15.

The aristocracy depended on their offspring to continue looking after their land but this too became a severe problem because not many of their children survived the Black Death and so the land that had been in the family for many generations now had to be rented or sold.

It is therefore fair to conclude that the lives of both the rich and poor and the role that the church played in their lives was indefinitely altered due to the devastationought on by the Black Death in England during the time between 148 and 14. This is clearly illustrated in the fresco called "The Dance of Death." .Although the church continued to hold an important role in the lives of the people, the Black Death caused them to realise that the church was not as infallible as it had always made itself out to be. This caused the people to explore new ways of finding salvation. For the first time in years the peasants began to question their downtrodden existence and the Black Death gave them the opportunity toeak free from their oppressive circumstances. John Ball wrote, "things cannot go on well in England, nor ever will until everything shall be in common…and all distinctions levelled."6This in turn affected the lives of the nobles who had grown familiar with the dominating role that they had played in the English society. Although the plague caused immense suffering it alsooke down the harsh and often inhumane feudal structure and allowed society as a whole to progress forward to a better future.

Please note that this sample paper on How the Black death of 1348, affected all aspects of society in England. is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on How the Black death of 1348, affected all aspects of society in England., we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on How the Black death of 1348, affected all aspects of society in England. will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Remuneration

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Remuneration. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Remuneration paper right on time. Out staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Remuneration, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Remuneration paper at affordable prices! Abstract

The real wage of the average worker in the United States has fallen 1 percent in the last 0 years, while the average chief executive officer (CEO) has received a pay raise of over 00 percent (Crystal, 11). This glaring contrast has sparked an explosion in academic research on executive compensation. The argument that Crystal (11) proposed, ¡°just about all of the rational factors you can think of, taken together, don¡¯t play a big role in determining executive pay¡±, is dominant in this medium. Despite this fact, research on executive paychecks has continued to grow as the literature is truly interdisciplinary across the fields of economics, finance and accounting, industrial relations, organizational behavior and strategy (Murphy 1).

Labour economists have drawn upon many conclusions on executive remuneration from a large theoretical and empirical interdisciplinary literature. They argued that executive remuneration offers opportunities to analyze many concepts of the economics of managerial labor market. Hence, in this essay I am going to explore these opportunities by looking at the functioning market in the captioned perspective.

The managerial labor market, which contains a range of firms that are with managerial jog openings and a range of potential managers who have different human capital characteristics, has two sides. On the one hand, the demand side, which is made up of employees who produce goods and services, and employers who purchase executive effort, concerns paid managerial labor as a function of the latter¡¯s pay and productivity. On the other hand, the supply side composes executives who are assumed to switch firms according to the characteristics of the firm and the salary. By understanding the two sides and the disciplining effect of the managerial labor markets, firms can identify the market forces that determine the optimal executive remuneration contracts so as to maximize firm value (Fama 180, Fama & Jensen 18). The use of such knowledge align with the understanding of managerial behavior with owners¡¯ interests can help firms to choose corporate policies that best signal their own value to the labor market such as CEO remuneration. Since one of the most important objectives of firms is to maximize their value, executives are disciplined into undertaking strategies preferred by the stockholders that maximize the firm¡¯s stock price (Fama 180). Hence, suggesting the major functioning of managerial labor market are to determine the rational level and structure of remuneration package and to reflect the managerial labor market¡¯s control of executives¡¯ behavior to maximize firm value. Cheap essay writing services offer help on Remuneration Despite the fact that executive remuneration schemes across firms and industries are substantially heterogeneous and complex, it can boiled down to four basic elements a base salary, bonus, stock options and long term incentive plans. I will examine these in turns. First, base salary for executives is a key component of the pay package. It represents the ¡° fixed component¡± in executive contracts. Second, bonus is paid annually based on accounting profit, budget, prior-year performance or incentive zone. Third, stock options are agreements that the executive may purchase from the firm at any time within a stated period or a given number of shares of its stock at a price specified on the date of granting (Easton & Rosen 18). This, with regards to political, economic, mechanical and behavioral factors, has made it the most pronounced method in executive remuneration in the last two decade (Murphy 1). This is because it relates the executive¡¯s income most directly to the concern of shareholders, i.e. the value of the firm. Finally, the long- term incentive plan, which is based on rolling ¨C average -or-5-year cumulative performance.

As I have stated before, the major function of the managerial labor market is to set a rational level and structure of the executive remuneration package so to maximize the firm¡¯s value, i.e. the executive remuneration reflects the managerial labor market¡¯s control of executives¡¯ behavior to maximize firm value. Hence, making the relationship between executive remuneration and company¡¯s performance the fundamental concern.

In order to understand this concern, we have to examine the agency theory as it is the principal theory guiding research on the pay-performance relationship (Berstein 17; Crystal, 15; Lowenstein 16; Gomez-Mejia 14; Gomez-Mejia and Wiseman 17; Fama & Jensen 18; Jensen & Meckling 176).

Agency theory states that many social relationships can be best understood as interactions between two parties principal and an agent. The agent performs certain actions on behalf of the principal, who must delegate some authority to the agent (Jesen and Mecking, 176). By examining the theory, firms can be in a better position when dealing with contract problems that are governed by an exchange between individuals who have divergent interests.

Typical organization in most western countries, which has a corporate structure with thousands or millions of owners, each having a small claim on the firm, can be used to make a clear illustration of the above. Shareholders of the organization are widely dispersed, delegating responsibility to running the business to hired executives. Given their limited control over corporate affairs and executive¡¯s limited stake in the firm¡¯s equity and risk, executive is expected to engage in behavior that promotes their personal wealth, perquisite consumption, job security and prestige but is detrimental to stockholders¡¯ interest in maximizing the value of the firm (Jesen & Mecking 176). The literature on agency theory has suggested that the optimal solution to goal incongruent is to have remuneration contracts that link executive remuneration to the performance of the firm. Hence, through the executive¡¯s holdings of stock, restricted stock, and stock options, an executive remuneration is explicitly tied to the principle¡¯s objective, i.e. the executive wealth is implicitly tied to the stock-price performance through accounting-based bonus and option (Murphy, 1). This in turns suggests that the performance-based remuneration will induce self-interested, utility-maximizing, risk-and-effort-averse agents to act on the behalf of principals who want to increase the value and performance of their firms (Eisenhardt 18; Jesen & Mecking 176). This view, however, has failed to find supportive evidence of such positive relationship (Jesen & Murphy 10; Kerr & Bettis 187; Mceachern 175; Rich & Larson 184). These researchers have claimed that the relationship between executive remuneration and firm performance is either nonexistent or is of a very weak nature, that is, remuneration is significantly unrelated to the firm¡¯s performance (Crystal 11) or if related, then only related to the short-term performance (Rapport 178). In contrast, some studies claim that the executive remuneration is more closely related to the firm¡¯s size than to the firm¡¯s profits (McGuire 16). Therefore this inconclusive effect of executive remuneration on the functioning of managerial labor market hasought a great puzzle to the researchers.

Therefore, to understand the functioning of managerial labour market, alternate mechanisms and criteria outside the agency framework are examined. These mechanisms include marginal productivity theory, internal and external market theory, board control theory, information-processing theory and social comparison theory, will be examined in turns.

Marginal productivity theory views the managerial labor market as perfectly competitive, that is there are a large number of individual, perfectly informed buyers and sellers of homogeneous executives. Hence, remuneration, viewed as the price of labor, is seen as being determined by the intersection of labor demand and supply curves in the market. Firm maximizes its profits in the short run by employing executives up to the point where the executive remuneration equals executive¡¯s marginal revenue product (MRP). It equals to executive¡¯s marginal physical product (MPP) multiplied by marginal revenue (MR). According to economists, executives are assumed to be highly mobile and fully informed and would supply their labor service to the highest bidder. Executive supply and demand are quicklyought into a state of equiliium through executives moving from one firm to another in response to opportunities to obtain higher earnings. Thus, by looking at the profit-maximizing firm¡¯s short-run demand curve for executives, which is the schedule of its marginal revenue product, executive remuneration can be determined by the value of his contribution to the firm.

Another influential theory regarding the internal and external managerial labor market of executive pay is made by Fama (180). He argued that the external labor market exerts many direct pressures on the firm to sort and compensate executives according to performance. Hence, there is a natural process of monitoring from higher to lower levels of management, i.e. each executive is concerned with the performance of executive above and below him since his marginal product is likely to be positive of their. This leads to a careful consideration of the mechanics, which the potential executives used to seek information about the responsiveness of the system in rewarding performance. Thus this market mechanism ensures the rights of shareholders and the rights of the top management are respected.

The third theory views the board as the legal representative and formal guardian of stockholders¡¯ interests, i.e. the board members have the task to oversee and ratify managements¡¯ decisions and to evaluate reward and sanction executives¡¯ performance (Bacon &own, 175). Research has focused on twooad factors, executive duality and the proportion of outsiders on a board in evaluating the influence the board exerts in setting executive pay. Finkelstein and Hamick (18) found no evidence of a relationship between executive remuneration the percentage shareholdings of outside directors. Furthermore, Boyd (14) found that ¡° contrary to expectations, the ratio of insiders was negatively associated with compensation¡±. Other work has also shown that the proportion of outside directors appointed to a board by its executive has a positive effect on executive remuneration (Main, 14). This theory also suggests that there is a threat of board actions and termination in response to observed managerial inefficiency or opportunism, which is likely to impel executives to refrain from behavior that is in conflict with stockholders¡¯ interests. Thus the characteristics of the board such as its structure and its effectiveness are key determinants on the executive remuneration and the sensitivity of the relationship between remuneration and performance.

Information-processing theory is very important when contributing on the recent work on executive remuneration as it focuses on the substantive nature of the job performed by executives on the social and political context of their pay. There are several reasons for expecting the remuneration of executive is in accordance to the information processing demands they face instead of the firm¡¯s performance. First, information-processing tasks are a major part of executive¡¯s jobs and the execution of such tasks is critical to organizational functioning and performance (Eisenhardt 18; Galaith 17; Halrblian & Finkelstein 1; Minzberg 17; Thompson 167). Second, executives¡¯ jobs vary considerably in the information-processing demands they create. The common theme of such research is around those demands that are significantly affected by three firm-level factors (1) the number and interdependence of a firm¡¯s business activities. () the technologies the firm employs and ( ) the management used to administrate the firm (Chandler 16; Dafe & Lengel 186; Galaith 17; Gresov 18; Hill & Hoskisson 187; Jones & Hill 188). This theory, therefore, shows that executives who face particularly high information-processing demands due to the diversification approach to technology their firms adapted will be expected to be paid more, as their ability to cope with these demands allow them to make larger marginal contributions to firm performance (Henderson & Fredrickson 16). In an informational efficient executive labor market, it is unrealistic to expect changes in executive pay to be closely related to firm performance measure, i.e. it has a low sensitivity of pay-for-performance.

Finally, the use of social comparison theory provides us an understanding of socio-psychological explanation of remuneration. This theory is based on the remise that individuals have the need to evaluate their opinions and abilities. They compare with others who have similar abilities and opinions. In the case of managerial labor market, the implication is that the remuneration committee will set the pay of executives who are perceived to be slightly better by striking a balance between providing financial incentives to executives to improve firm performance and avoiding a binding ¡°participation constraint¡± (Smith & Stnabsju 15). That is to ensure that executives remain loyal to firms by offering levels of pay comparable to the external labor market alternatives.

So far, I have discussed what factors determine the executive remuneration and how they effect on the firm¡¯s performance from the economics, psychological and sociological perspectives. However, these are not sufficient enough to understand the functioning of the managerial labour market fully. Recent work, perhaps responding to the difficulties with traditional economies-based research on remuneration, has begun to move beyond established frameworks and suggests some new factors that may influence the remuneration-setting process. Managerial discretion, efficient wages model, tournament models (Lazer & Rosen 181; Rosen 186), resource dependence theory etc are some examples of paradigms that explain executive pay, which have moved the stream of research on executive remuneration forward greatly.

To sum up, research on executive compensation has a long history. Much of this work has adopted the economics perspective, which views social, political or strategic factors as the determinants of executive pay. In this essay, I have tried to explore the functioning of managerial labor market based on the existing comprehensive theoretical and empirical literature on executive remuneration. My conclusion is that although the pay for performance is consistent with agency theory, the relationship between executive remuneration and performance is more complex than the empirical research has presumed. Since the extent to which the functioning of managerial labor market is effected by the executive remuneration is still inconclusive, aoader perspective should be adopted by firms in order to have a better understanding of the functioning of managerial labor market from the executive remuneration stand.

Please note that this sample paper on Remuneration is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Remuneration, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on Remuneration will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!